Volume 32(2 & 3), 2005

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Tiankengs: Special Issue Cover photo by Tony Waltham Huangjing Tiankeng, in the Leye karst of Guangxi, China. With vertical walls over 120 m high round its entire perimeter, this is a splendid example of the type of giant collapse doline that is best known as a tiankeng - a new word that enters karst literature straight from its Chinese origins.

Contents

Papers

Editorial

(Waltham, A.C.)
Guest Editorial: Tony Waltham
Vol 32 (1) p 50

Tiankengs are huge collapse dolines that are among the most spectacular of karst landforms. They have been late to enter the karst lexicon because most of them have only recently been "discovered" by karst geologists in the remoter parts of China's vast landscapes of limestone. The "arrival" of tiankengs has been a by-product of the current explosive development of China's economy and infrastructure - only recently have these great karst landforms become accessible. They now go under their name in Chinese - tiankeng, which loosely translates as sky hole.

Since the mid-1980s, a few giant shafts have been explored by British and French cavers working within China, and the megadolines of the Nakanai karst in New Guinea had found by other French cavers. Inside China, explorations were co-ordinated by Prof Zhu Xuewen and his team at the Institute of Karst Geology in Guilin, and the later discoveries (of the largest of the tiankengs) prompted them to recognise the tiankeng as a distinctive karst landform. The various Chinese sites, and a smaller number in other countries around the world, were embraced by the concept of the tiankeng, and this was then accepted within China.

To take the tiankeng concept to the outside world, Prof Zhu and his team organised the Tiankeng Investigation Project in 2005 when an international group of delegates visited some of the key sites in China and then produced the documentation that forms this issue of Cave and Karst Science.

The tour of the tiankengs that Zhu Xuewen organised was a serious contender for the title of the world's best-ever karst field trip. Delegates saw an incredible suite of truly spectacular tiankengs, visited some fabulous caves and traversed some of the world's most magnificent karst terrains. With banquets every evening, and excellent hotel accommodation, this was hardly a normal geological field trip. Many evenings also included structured meetings with officials from local government, when the foreign delegates presented informal oral reports on the sites visited that day. This provided some of the essential feedback to the local hosts, as they greatly valued international input to their plans for expanding karst geotourism, which is of considerable economic significance in the rural areas where mountainous karst terrains hamper agricultural development.

A prime outcome from the 2005 Project was intended to be this publication - which would bring tiankengs to the attention of the wider international community of karst geoscientists. This issue of Cave and Karst Science opens with three papers that review the tiankeng tour, summarise the research on tiankengs within China, and then overview tiankengs outside China. A fourth paper collates data and opinions in order to provide a more formal description and definition of the tiankeng as a karst landform. The eight following papers were prepared by the foreign delegates, each exploring some aspect of tiankengs both inside and outside China. The first four papers may be regarded as consensus opinions of the members of the 2005 Project (listed in the first paper), while the following eight are the opinions of their own authors.

All twelve papers are being simultaneously published in Chinese in Carsologica Sinica (Volume 25, 2006), and will then appear in Speleogenesis (Volume 4, Issue 2), the virtual scientific journal at www. speleogenesi s. info .

Prof. Zhu hosted his magnificent field trip and subsequent meeting in order to spread the word on tiankengs. He did this in the grandest style imaginable. Delegates returned home from the event with a new understanding of the great importance of China's karst and especially its tiankengs.

Footnote on references to Chinese authors
It should be noted that Chinese names are written with the family name first, followed by the given name. Therefore a citation of Zhu Xuewen, should be Zhu X, and should not be Xuewen, Z. No comma is needed after Zhu, as the name has not been reversed. Because so many Chinese family names are very common, it is normal in Chinese scientific literature to cite the complete name, as Zhu Xuewen, but it should be noted that this is still indexed under Z and not under X Some Chinese academics working outside their home country have westernised their names, so that they appear in the form of Xuewen Zhu; this could lead to confusion in indexing, but is commonly resolved because all Chinese family names are a single syllable, while most (but not all) given names are two syllables

Papers

CAVE AND KARST SCIENCE Vol. 32, No. 2 & 3, 2005 pp 51-54
The 2005 Tiankeng Investigation Project in China
Tony WALTHAM
Abstract: A summary report of the Tiankeng Investigation Project, hosted by Prof. Zhu Xuewen in China in 2005. This included an extremely successful field tour to tiankengs (giant collapse dolines) in the karst of Chongqing and Guangxi, and an indoor meeting in the Karst Research Institute in Guilin when the definition of a tiankeng was formalised.
Key words: tiankeng, karst, doline, China
(Received: November 2005)

CAVE AND KARST SCIENCE Vol. 32, No. 2 & 3, 2005 pp 55-66
Tiankengs in the karst of China
ZHU Xuewen and CHEN Weihai
Abstract: China has the most extensive and diversified karst terrains in the world and most of them are rich in caves and dolines. The cone karst (fengcong) and tower karst (fenglin) developed in the humid climate in southern China form the most distinctive karst landscapes. Tiankengs are giant dolines that are a feature in some areas of the cone karst. In recent years, more than fifty tiankengs have been discovered in the cone karst in southern China, notably in the provinces of Chongqing, Guangxi, Sichuan and Guizhou. Current research indicates that tiankengs develop in specific environments of geomorphology, geology and hydrogeology, and are therefore distinguished from normal karst dolines.
Key words: karst, doline, discovery, tiankeng, geomorphology
(Received November 2005)

CAVE AND KARST SCIENCE Vol. 32, No. 2 & 3, 2005 pp 67-74
Tiankengs of the world, outside China
Tony WALTHAM
Abstract: An inventory of tiankengs that are known outside China is accompanied by brief descriptions and comments on their features and origins. Available data suggests that there are only 26 known tiankengs outside China. Some other very large collapse dolines are compared.
Key words: tiankeng, karst, doline, world
(Received: November 2005)

CAVE AND KARST SCIENCE Vol. 32, No. 2 & 3, 2005 pp 75-80
Tiankeng: definition and description
ZHU Xuewen and Tony WALTHAM
Abstract: A tiankeng is a type of very large collapse doline that has evolved by roof collapse over a large cave chamber where a huge mass of breakdown debris has been removed by a substantial cave river. Described first in China, the term tiankeng is recognised as a useful term within the world's lexicon of karst.
Key words: karst, doline, tiankeng, China, definition
(Received December 2005)

CAVE AND KARST SCIENCE Vol. 32, No. 2 & 3, 2005 pp 81-82
Large collapse chambers within caves
Andy EAVIS
Abstract: In the karsts of China and Mulu (Sarawak) large chambers and tiankengs are associated with much smaller cave passages. They have developed mainly on fracture zones, some within the phreas, where rock collapse is not associated only with vadose drainage.
Key words: collapse, fracture, chamber, aven, tiankeng
Received December 2005

CAVE AND KARST SCIENCE Vol. 32, No. 2 & 3, 2005 pp 83-84
Turloughs and tiankengs: distinctive doline forms
John GUNN
Abstract: Tiankengs lie at one extreme of the collapse doline spectrum, and a key question is whether there is a distinctive `tiankeng process' or whether the distinction is purely morphological. At the opposite end of the doline spectrum, the turloughs of Ireland are broad closed depressions with seasonal lakes. They may be differentiated from poljes by their smaller dimensions, gentler surrounding slopes and processes of formation. In particular, turloughs are only found in areas where there are glacial deposits and are, at least in part, glaciokarstic landforms whereas poljes occur in many climatic zones and their locations frequently demonstrate a structural influence. Turloughs have been recognised by the European Union as special karst landforms with a distinctive vegetation assemblage, although the term is not widely used because, with one exception, they are confined to Ireland. There are clear parallels with `tiankeng' the majority of which are in China and which are distinguished from collapse dolines by their large size, and special processes of formation. It is argued that the terms `turlough' and `tiankeng' should both become established in the karst geomorphology lexicon.
Key words: turlough, tiankeng, karst, Ireland, terminology
(Received December 2005)

CAVE AND KARST SCIENCE Vol. 32, No. 2 & 3, 2005 pp 85-92
Giant dolines of the Muller Plateau, Papua New Guinea
Julia M. JAMES
Abstract: The Muller Plateau lies within the Southern Highlands of Papua New Guinea, and is distinguished by its giant dolines. Many of these have exceptionally large dimensions and a morphology comparable to that of the megadolines of the Nakanai Mountains on New Britain and the tiankengs of the South China karst. They are all caprock dolines. The geology, physical geography and hydrology of the Muller Plateau are compared with those of the Nakanai Mountains and the South China karst. Proposed mechanisms for the formation of three groups (Rogorepo, Mamo and Atea) of giant dolines on the Muller Plateau are discussed. The Muller Plateau giant dolines, like the megadolines and the tiankengs, formed during the Pleistocene. The Muller Plateau dolines have formed in an environment that has many similarities to the other giant dolines. However, it is unlikely that they will ever evolve to the magnificence of the Nakanai megadolines or the aesthetics of the Chinese tiankengs, as a controlling factor in their development is a siltstone caprock and impure interbeds within the Darai Limestone.
Key words: megadoline, New Guinea, karst, cave, chamber
(Received December 2005)

CAVE AND KARST SCIENCE Vol. 32, No. 2 & 3, 2005 pp 93-98
Cave un-roofing as a large-scale geomorphic process
Alexander KLIMCHOUK
Abstract: A morphogenetic approach appears to be the most sensible in defining the tiankeng as a typological category. Tiankengs are giant collapse dolines formed over large river caves, with continuous precipitous perimeter and a diameter-to-depth ratio between 0.5 and 2. The term bears an evolutionary meaning, referring to the youthful stage of open collapse doline development, and the relationship of tiankengs to large underground rivers. The latter criterion separates tiankengs from other types of giant collapse features, such as caprock collapses over evaporates or large collapses over hydrothermal cavities. The South China karst offers evidence that un-roofing of caves is a large-scale geomorphic process playing an important role in the formation of cone and tower karst. It is probably the major process in the origin of large depressions, gorges and valleys in tropical karst, although other geomorphic processes contribute to shaping and maturation of a landscape and eventually obscure the origin in unroofed caves. Many saddles between hills and towers in fengcong and fenglin karst may owe their origin to cave un-roofing.
Keywords: tiankeng, limestone gorges, karst collapse, cave un-roofing, fengcong, fenglin
(Received December 2005)

CAVE AND KARST SCIENCE Vol. 32, No. 2 & 3, 2005 pp 99-100
Some large dolines in the Dinaric karst
Andrej KRANJC
Abstract: The main characteristics of the Dinaric karst are all kind of depressions, not only poljes and dolines, but also collapse dolines and similar forms. Some examples of such forms of large dimensions are located on the higher karst plateaus (Pokljuka, Jelovica, SneZnik in Slovenia), on the contact karst (Skocjanske Jame), on the levels above poljes (Crveno Jezero above the Imotsko Polje), and behind large karst springs (Uraa Kolikvka above Malni springs). Slovene terms for karst depressions are defined.
Key words: karst geomorphology, depression, collapse doline, Dinaric karst.
(Received November 2005)

CAVE AND KARST SCIENCE Vol. 32, No. 2 & 3, 2005 pp 101-106
Hydraulic processes in the origin of tiankengs
Arthur N. PALMER and Margaret V. PALMER
Abstract: Tiankengs are formed most commonly by the collapse of bedrock into underlying caves that contain active rivers. The collapse propagates itself by blocking and diverting the underground streams, so that hydraulic gradients become steeper and the solutional and erosional capacities are enhanced. Most of the volume of a tiankeng is produced by removal of mass by the cave streams. A large and fluctuating discharge is most favorable. As diversion passages form and enlarge, they foster further collapse and diversion. Stress release around the collapse encourages the opening of new fractures with trends that differ from regional fracture patterns. These processes account for the large scale of tiankengs in comparison to the original cave passages.
Keywords: Karst, doline, collapse, hydraulic
(Received November 2005)

CAVE AND KARST SCIENCE Vol. 32, No. 2 & 3, 2005 pp 107-110
Collapse processes at the tiankengs of Xingwen
Tony WALTHAM
Abstract: The karst of Xingwen, China, contains the Xiaoyanwan tiankeng, alongside the degraded tiankeng of Dayanwan and also the potential collapse chambers in the Zhucaojing cave system. These three sites appear to represent an evolutionary sequence, whereby a tiankeng develops from multiple cave collapses, and subsequently degrades to the profile of a large doline.
Key words: collapse, geomorphology, evolution, tiankeng, doline, China
(Received November 2005)

CAVE AND KARST SCIENCE Vol. 32, No. 2 & 3, 2005 pp 111-118
Size scales for closed depression landforms: the place of tiankengs
William B. WHITE' and Elizabeth L. WHITE
Abstract: Development of large collapse structures in karstic terrain requires an interaction between mechanical instability and chemical removal of collapsed rock. Upward migration of pre-existing voids can choke out if there is no mechanism for the efficient removal of fallen blocks. Rates of dissolution, size of initial cavity, and overlying bedrock characteristics determine the size of the final surface landform. Collapse features range in scale from small sinkholes to hundreds of meters in such features as the Golondrinas collapse pit in Mexico. Tiankengs are interpreted as end members on a continuous scale.
Keywords: collapse, doline, tiankeng

Forum

CAVE AND KARST SCIENCE Vol. 32, No. 2 & 3, 2005 pp 119-128
Forum

CAVE AND KARST SCIENCE Vol. 32, No. 2 & 3, 2005 pp 119-120
Abstracts Karstologia 2003/41

CAVE AND KARST SCIENCE Vol. 32, No. 2 & 3, 2005 pp 120-121
Abstracts Karstologia 2003/42

CAVE AND KARST SCIENCE Vol. 32, No. 2 & 3, 2005 pp 121-122
Abstracts Karstologia 2004/43

CAVE AND KARST SCIENCE Vol. 32, No. 2 & 3, 2005 pp 122-123
Abstracts Karstologia 2004/44

CAVE AND KARST SCIENCE Vol. 32, No. 2 & 3, 2005 pp 123-125
Abstracts Karstologia 2005/45-46

CAVE AND KARST SCIENCE Vol. 32, No. 2 & 3, 2005 p125
Contents List Speleogenesis 3(2)/2005

CAVE AND KARST SCIENCE Vol. 32, No. 2 & 3, 2005 p125
Contents List International Journal of Speleology 35(1)/2005

CAVE AND KARST SCIENCE Vol. 32, No. 2 & 3, 2005 p126
Contents List Journal of Cave and Karst Studies 67(3)/2005

CAVE AND KARST SCIENCE Vol. 32, No. 2 & 3, 2005 pp 126-127
BOOK REVIEW
Processes of speleogenesis: a modeling approach.
By Wolfgang Dreybrodt, Franci GabrovSek and Douchko Romanov, with guest contributions by Sebastian Bauer, Steffen Birk, Rudolf Liedl, Martin Sauter and Georg Kaufmann. Published by Karst Research Institute at ZRC SAZU, Postojna B Ljubljana, 2005. ISBN 961-6500-91-0. 376pp.

CAVE AND KARST SCIENCE Vol. 32, No. 2 & 3, 2005 p127
SCIENTIFIC NOTE
Radiocarbon dates from Tynings Great Swallet – there is no substitute for data.
Tynings Great Swallet is located immediately above the terminal boulder choke of Charterhouse Cave, on Mendip. The University of Bristol Spelaeological Society has been digging in this doline since the early 1980s, in an attempt to reach the continuation of the Charterhouse stream and hopefully follow it to join the continuation of the G.B. Cavern stream beyond that cave's terminal choke.
Following a minor breakthrough in 2002, we found that the doline seemed to be situated over a large shaft, up to 10m in diameter, almost completely filled with loose rock. Such features are quite common on Mendip and a number of similar shafts have been dug at various times. However, we also started to find amongst the rocks a quantity of bone, both human and animal. We also found a single artifact identified as a late Neolithic thumb scraper. This material caused the site to be compared directly with other, similar, shafts that have yielded significant quantities of archaeological material, notably Charterhouse Warren Farm Swallet and Brimble Pit. Details of the work at Great Swallet were published by Boycott and Mullan in January 2005.
At this stage, we had a reasonable hypothesis that Tynings might be a late Neolithic - early Bronze Age formal deposition site, but the fact that it had been dug as a cave rather than as an archaeological site meant that only part of the potentially available material had been recovered. The mud and rock choke through which we have dug makes recovery of material extremely difficult as it is difficult to tell mud-covered bone apart from mud-covered rock. However this idea needed to be tested. Accordingly, on the advice of Dr Roger Jacobi of the British Museum, two bones were submitted to the Oxford University Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art for AMS radiocarbon dating. We are grateful to the Research Fund of the BCRA for funding this part of the work.
The two bones submitted were from Bos primigenius, found at a depth of approximately 40m and Homo sapiens, found at a depth of approximately 30m. When the dates were received, the Bos was dated, at 95.4% probability to 2480 BC – 2290 BC, largely as anticipated. However the Homo date came out at 400 BC (34.8%) 340 BC, 320 BC (60.6%) 200 BC. (The reason for the split probabilities here is due to the uncalibrated date being just on a "wiggle" in the calibration curve.) This was clearly much younger than anticipated, being firmly in the middle of the Iron Age. These data are described in more detail by Mullan (in prep.)
The data have completely altered our view of the site. It is patently not simply a further example of a late Neolithic – early Bronze Age formal deposition site, though it was of a similar outward appearance at that time. Unlike the intentionally infilled sites from that time, where deposition was rapid, accumulation of sediment here seems to have been quite slow, at approximately 0.5m per century. What the presence of Iron Age human material shows is harder to say, given the lack of artifacts from this period. It is known that Iron Age peoples did use caves as burial sites, but whether this was a formal burial or something else is impossible to say at present. Work continues at the site.
References
Mullan, G J and Boycott, A, 2005. Archaeological Note: Skeletal Material recovered from Tyning's Great Swallet, Charterhouse-on-Mendip, Somerset. Proceedings of the University of Bristol Spelaeological Society. Vol.23.2,135-140.
Mullan, G J (in prep.) Radiocarbon dates from Tyning's Great Swallet, Charterhouse-on-Mendip, Somerset. Proceedings of the University of Bristol Spelaeological Society. 24. 1.
Graham Mullan Bristol, UK.

CAVE AND KARST SCIENCE Vol. 32, No. 2 & 3, 2005 pp 127-128
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UKRAINIAN INSTITUTE OF SPELEOLOGY AND KARSTOLOGY
On March 28, 2006 the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine and the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine have jointly established, as a state scientific organization, the Ukrainian Institute of Speleology and Karstology. The Institute is based on the Tavrichesky national University at Simferopol, Crimea. The main office/facilities are located in Simferopol, in a historic building in the University's botanic garden. Other facilities include a speleological science field station in the Chatyrdag Plateau in the Crimean Mountains and an office in Kiev based in the Institute of Geological Sciences of NASU (to be opened in 2007).
The Institute's mission is to serve as a robust cave and karst research center to foster and coordinate respective research and documentation activity on the national level and to further international cooperation in the science of speleology and karstology through the UISK involvement into multilateral and bilateral research programs. The Institute is involved in fundamental and applied research, protection of karst and subterranean environment and specialized training of planners, engineers, managers, geologists and ecologists.
The Institute's staff and affiliate members currently include 32 scientists with background and expertise in hydrogeology (Dr. V. Dubljansky, Dr. G.Dubljanskaya, Dr.Gudzenko, Dr.A.Klimchouk, Dr.A.Lushchik), hydrochemistry (Dr.S.Aksem, Dr.Yu.Shutov), geomorphology and physical geography (Dr.V.Andrejchuk, Dr.B. Vakhrushev, Dr.G.Amelichev), geophysics (Dr.V.Bakhmutov, Dr.S. Levashev), geology-paleontology (Dr.Lysenko), mineralogy (Dr.Yu. Polkanov), biology (R. Vargovich, G.Prokopov), microbiology (Dr.A. Tashirev), archeology (Dr.B.Ridush, MSokhatsky), cave management (A.Kozlov, E.Lukjanenko) and other disciplines. The UISK is closely linked with the Ukrainian Speleological Association that provides support in cave documentation and in pursuing researches in complex cave systems.
The speleological science field station of UISK is established in the Chatyrdag Massif, a classical middle-altitude karst plateau with numerous caves, two of which, Mramornaya and Emine-Bair-Khosar are large ancient caves with exceptionally rich and varied speleothems and sediments. Parts of these caves are developed for tourism, being the core of a single large show cave complex. The Emine-Bair-Khosar cave contains an enormous site of Plio­Pleistocene fauna of great paleontological significance. The field station will conduct systematic detailed and regime investigations in the mountain karst environment, aimed to reconstruction of past environmental conditions from cave records and to study the modern cave environment and physical processes operating in it through an instrumented monitoring system. The infrastructure of the show cave complex and the UISK field station in Chatyrdag karst plateau provides excellent conditions for conducting regular international thematic field seminars and schools, planned to launch from 2007 onward.
The UISK would welcome proposals for collaborative projects, especially those which would serve to develop instrumentation, monitoring system and detailed cave studies in the Chatyrdag field station.
Inauguration of the UISK and its speleological science field station will be held in April 11-12 in Simferopol and on the Chatyrdag, together with first scientific session of the Institute.
Dr Alexander Klimchouk
Director, Ukrainian Institute of Speleology and Karstology

CAVE AND KARST SCIENCE Vol. 32, No. 2 & 3, 2005 p128
ADDENDUM
In an attempt to bring the stratigraphical nomenclature in Dr Trevor Ford's paper in Cave and Karst Science Vol.32, No.1 right up to date, an extra (unpublished but imminent) reference citation was inserted in the text. Unfortunately, due to oversight, the related details were not added to the reference list. We apologize to readers and to the paper's author for this editorial omission, and reproduce the full reference below:
Waters, C N, Browne, M A E, Dean, M T and Powell, J H. In Press. BGS Lithostratigraphical framework for Carboniferous successions of Great Britain (Onshore). British Geological Survey Research Report, RR/05/06.

CAVE AND KARST SCIENCE Vol. 32, No. 2 & 3, 2005 p128
EDITORIAL ENDNOTE
The editors thank Dr Tony Waltham for his invaluable contribution as Guest Editor of the scientific part of this largely thematic issue of Cave and Karst Science, and for his role in the organization of the Tiankeng Investigation Project, which led to the development of the published papers. As the material submitted for the "thematic" issue took the publication well beyond its customary length we decided to extend the content, by including some of our existing stockpile of "Forum" material, and produce a double issue.
This double issue completes Volume 32, so we extend our customary thanks to all contributors and to all those who have given their time and expertise to help review the Journal's potential content. In this respect we acknowledge the valued input of Armstrong Osborne, Jamie Pringle, Chris Smart, Andrej Tye and Tony Waltham, some of whom have cast their eyes over more than one submission.
Once again our thanks are also extended to Becky Talbot who, despite having to deal with serious health problems, has continued to labour on the Desk Top Publication aspects of our production against a background of constantly moving goalposts. Last but not least we add our continuing gratitude to Steve Summers, Sales Director of the Sherwood Press, and to his colleagues, for their continued patience and the efficient and high quality service that they provide.
We are pleased that in the Forum space available in this issue we have been able to include substantial sections covering publications elsewhere in the world of cave and karst science. Hopefully, such international liaison will form a continuing aspect of Forum whenever material is available and when space allows. The existing functions of Forum – publication of scientific notes, correspondence, book reviews and research abstracts, etc, will of course continue, as evidenced by the three items reproduced immediately above, as well as the occasional inclusion of addenda, corrigenda and errata.
Dave Lowe and John Gunn

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